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Disseminated intravascular coagulation, formerly termed as disseminated intravascular coagulopathy, is not a disease but a sign of an underlying condition. DIC may be triggered by sepsis, trauma, cancer, shock, abruptio placenta, toxins or allergic reactions. The severity of DIC is variable, but it is potentially life-threatening. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY  Normal homeostatic mechanism are altered in DIC so [...]

Pulmonary emphysema is defined as a nonuniform pattern of abnormal, permanent distention of the air spaces  with destruction of the alveolar walls and eventually a reduced pulmonary capillary bed. It appears to be the end stage of a process that has progressed slowly for many years. Smoking is the major cause. In a few patients, [...]

The anemias caused by deficiencies of the vitamins B12 and folic acid show identical bone marrow and peripheral blood changes. Both vitamins are essential for DNA synthesis. Pathophysiology The two main vitamin deficiencies may coexist. In each case, hyperplasia of the bone marrow occurs, and the precursor erythroid and myeloid cells are large and bizarre [...]

    Diabetes insipidus is a disorder of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland due to a deficiency of vasopressin, the antidiuretic hormone (ADH). it is characterized by polydipsia and polyuria. Diabetes insipidus may be (1) secondary, related to head trauma, brain tumor, or surgical ablation or irradiation of the pituitary gland or infection [...]

Cushing’s syndrome results from excessive adrenocortical activity. It may result from excessive administration of corticosteroids or adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or from hyperplasia of the adrenal cortex. It may be caused by several mechanism, including a tumor in the pituitary gland or less commonly an ectopic malignancy that produces ACTH. Regardless of the  cause, the negative [...]

Addison’s disease is caused by a deficiency of cortical hormone. It results when the adrenal cortex function is inadequate to meet the patient’s need for cortical hormones. Autoimmune or idiopathic atrophy of the adrenal glands is responsible for 80% to 90% of cases. Other causes include surgical removal of both adrenal glands or infection (tuberculosis [...]

Anemia is a condition of lower-than-normal red blood cell (RBC)  count and hemoglobin (Hgb) level. It is often not a specific disease state but a sign of an underlying disorder. Anemia results in a diminished amount of oxygen delivery to body tissues.  There are many different kinds of anemia, but all can be classified as [...]

Angina pectoris is a clinical syndrome characterized by paroxysms of pain or a feeling of pressure in the anterior chest. The cause is insufficient blood flow, resulting in an inadequate supply of oxygen to meet the myocardial demand.  angina is usually the result of atherosclerotic (a form of arteriosclerosis characterized by the deposition of atheromatous [...]

Constipation refers to an abnormal infrequency or irregularity of defecation, abnormal hardening of stools that makes their passage difficult and sometimes painful, decrease in stool volume, or prolonged retention of stool in the rectum. This types is referred to as colonic constipation. It can be caused by certain medications; rectal or anal disorders; obstruction; metabolic, [...]

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is defined as the most severe form of a continuum of illnesses associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. HIV belongs to a group of viruses known as retroviruses. These viruses carry their genetic material in the form of ribonucleic acid (RNA) rather than deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Infection with HIV occurs [...]