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Disseminated intravascular coagulation, formerly termed as disseminated intravascular coagulopathy, is not a disease but a sign of an underlying condition. DIC may be triggered by sepsis, trauma, cancer, shock, abruptio placenta, toxins or allergic reactions. The severity of DIC is variable, but it is potentially life-threatening. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY  Normal homeostatic mechanism are altered in DIC so [...]

Buerger’s disease is characterized by recurring inflammation of the intermediate and small arteries and veins of the lower and (in rare case) upper extremities. It results in thrombus formation and occlusion of the vessels. It is differentiated from other vessel diseases by it microscopic appearance. In contrast to atherosclerosis, Buerger’s disease is believed to be [...]

Pulmonary emphysema is defined as a nonuniform pattern of abnormal, permanent distention of the air spaces  with destruction of the alveolar walls and eventually a reduced pulmonary capillary bed. It appears to be the end stage of a process that has progressed slowly for many years. Smoking is the major cause. In a few patients, [...]

The anemias caused by deficiencies of the vitamins B12 and folic acid show identical bone marrow and peripheral blood changes. Both vitamins are essential for DNA synthesis. Pathophysiology The two main vitamin deficiencies may coexist. In each case, hyperplasia of the bone marrow occurs, and the precursor erythroid and myeloid cells are large and bizarre [...]

    Diabetes insipidus is a disorder of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland due to a deficiency of vasopressin, the antidiuretic hormone (ADH). it is characterized by polydipsia and polyuria. Diabetes insipidus may be (1) secondary, related to head trauma, brain tumor, or surgical ablation or irradiation of the pituitary gland or infection [...]

Diabetes mellitus is a group of mtabolic disorders characterized by elevated levels of blood glucose (hyperglycemia) resulting from defects in insulin production and secretion, decreased cellular response to insulin, or both. Hyperglycemia may lead to metabolic complications, such as diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HHNS). Long-term hyperglycemia may contribute to chronic microvascular [...]

Cushing’s syndrome results from excessive adrenocortical activity. It may result from excessive administration of corticosteroids or adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or from hyperplasia of the adrenal cortex. It may be caused by several mechanism, including a tumor in the pituitary gland or less commonly an ectopic malignancy that produces ACTH. Regardless of the  cause, the negative [...]

Addison’s disease is caused by a deficiency of cortical hormone. It results when the adrenal cortex function is inadequate to meet the patient’s need for cortical hormones. Autoimmune or idiopathic atrophy of the adrenal glands is responsible for 80% to 90% of cases. Other causes include surgical removal of both adrenal glands or infection (tuberculosis [...]

Antiparkinsonism Agents Parkinson’s Disease Progressive chronic neurologic disorder May develop in people of any age Usually affects those who are past middle age and entering their 60s No cure for the disease Therapy is aimed at management of signs and symptoms Progression of Parkinson’s Disease Lack of coordination Rhythmic tremors Rigidity/weakness Trouble maintaining position or [...]

Antiepileptic Agents Factors Affecting the Type of Seizure Location of the cells that initiate the electrical discharge Neural pathways that are stimulated by the initial volley of electrical impulses Classification of Seizures Generalized seizures Begin in one area of the brain and rapidly spread throughout both hemispheres of the brain Partial seizures or focal seizures [...]